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Iran, the largest and most populous country in southwest Asia, possesses abundant petroleum resources and is also important because of its economic potential and strategic location. It shares land borders with Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the north; with a coastline 3,180 km (1,976 mi) long, it commands navigation on the PERSIAN GULF, the Strait of HORMUZ, and the Gulf of Oman (see OMAN, GULF OF) in the south. Iran borders Turkey and Iraq on the west and Afghanistan and Pakistan on the east. The country was long known to the West as Persia, from the ancient Greek name Persis, but in 1935 its government requested use of the older and more correct name, Iran, meaning "Land of the Aryans." Iran was an independent monarchy for more than 2,500 years until the shah of Iran, MUHAMMAD REZA SHAH PAHLAVI, was deposed in 1979 and an Islamic republic was declared.

LAND AND RESOURCES

The topography of Iran consists mainly of a central plateau rimmed by high mountains; most of the country lies above 450 m (1,500 ft), and about 15 percent is above 2,000 m (6,560 ft). The only extensive lowlands, all restricted in width to between 15 and 115 km (10 and 70 mi), occur along the southern shores of the CASPIAN SEA and along the shores of the Gulf of Oman. About half of the country is dominated by the arid central plateau, with elevations ranging from 600 to 900 m (about 2,000 to 3,000 ft). The mountain ranges encircling the plateau are the ELBURZ MOUNTAINS and their structural continuation in the Talish Mountains and the Kopet Dagh on the north, the ZAGROS MOUNTAINS on the southwest, and the Makran Range on the south. The highest mountains are in the Elburz, where Mount DEMAVEND, an extinct volcanic peak located northeast of Tehran, rises to 5,671 m (18,606 ft), the highest point in Iran. One of the most extraordinary features of Iranian topography is an uninhabitable arid salt waste, the Dasht-e-Kavir, centered 485 km (300 mi) southeast of the capital, Tehran.

Soils

The soils used most extensively for farming in Iran are the rich brown forest soils found along the coastal regions of the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea. Elsewhere, soils suitable for farming are largely alluvial and limited to river valleys in mountainous areas and along the SHATT-AL-ARAB (the mouth of the Tigris-Euphrates). Water availability rather than soil quality, however, is the determining factor for agriculture, and large areas could be farmed if water were available.

Climate

Iran has a varied continental type of climate marked by extremes in both temperature and precipitation. Summers are extremely hot along the Persian Gulf, where temperatures of 50 degrees C (122 degrees F) are not uncommon. In inland areas, daytime highs also occasionally exceed 50 degrees C but fall rapidly at night. Winters are generally cold, except along the milder Caspian and Persian Gulf shores, with temperatures reaching below 0 degrees C (32 degrees F) on the plateau. In Tehran the average January temperature is 2 degrees C (36 degrees F), and the average for July is 30 degrees C (86 degrees F). Precipitation ranges from more than 1,270 mm (50 in) in the northwestern Zagros and the Elburz mountains to less than 50 mm (2 in) in southeastern areas of the central plateau.

Drainage

The most important river in Iran is the Karun, which rises in the central Zagros Mountains and joins the Shatt-al-Arab at Khorramshahr. The Karun, flowing across a broad alluvial plain, is navigable to Ahvaz; it is Iran's only navigable river. Three other rivers that maintain their flow all year are the Atrak in the northeast, which rises in the Kopet Dagh and flows into the eastern side of the Caspian Sea; the Safid, which flows through the Elburz to the south shore of the Caspian Sea; and the Araks (Aras) in the northwest, which flows into Azerbaijan before entering the western side of the Caspian Sea. Other rivers in Iran tend to dry up in summer and flow only intermittently. Qanats, or long underground water tunnels, are widely used to bring water from the mountains into the plateau.

Vegetation and Animal Life
About 11 percent of Iran is covered with forest, most of it deciduous and located in the mountains bordering the Caspian Sea. A variety of trees and shrubs also covers parts of the Zagros Mountains. Drier parts of the country are generally devoid of vegetation. Common trees in the oases are poplars, tamarisks, date palms, myrtles, and mulberries. On the plateau the fauna include wild boar, foxes, jackals, and a few lions and tigers in the wilder areas; numerous smaller animals; and, in the drier areas, a variety of lizards and other creatures adapted to arid conditions.

Resources

Iran is tremendously rich in minerals, especially petroleum and natural gas. In 1988 it was the seventh-largest producer of oil in the world (after the former USSR, Saudi Arabia, the United States, China, Mexico, and Iraq). In 1992 it produced 3,283,000 barrels a day. It is estimated that the petroleum reserves will last for more than 80 years. Most oil fields are located in the southwest, especially in Khuzestan province, and some are under the waters of the Persian Gulf. Extensive discoveries have been made in other parts of the country as well. Natural gas supplies are also enormous, about 14 trillion cu m (600 trillion cu ft), and constitute the world's second-largest reserves (after Russia's). Much of the natural gas is used to supply domestic energy needs. In the 1970s iron and coal deposits were developed for use in the new steel industry, and large deposits of chromite, copper, lead, zinc, and salt are only beginning to be exploited on a large scale.

PEOPLE

The population of Iran is ethnically complex, and minority groups staunchly defend their provincial separatism and seek autonomy in local affairs. About two-thirds of the population are descended from Aryan tribes who migrated to Iran from central Asia in the 17th century BC. The remaining one-third is composed mostly of Turks and Arabs, as well as small minorities of Armenians and Jews. The largest Aryan group are Persians, or Farsi, who constitute 63 percent of the total population and live mainly in the central plateau. Also of Aryan origin are the Gilani and Mazandarani, who live on the northern edge of the plateau and around the shores of the Caspian Sea. Many of Iran's important ethnic minorities (although also of Aryan descent) are nomadic and have strongly resisted culture change, with some even demanding separate nations; these groups include the KURDS, who live mainly in the northern Zagros Mountains; the BAKHTIARI and Lurs, who live in the southern half of the Zagros Mountains; and the BALUCHI, who live in southeast Iran along the borders with Afghanistan and Pakistan. The largest Turkic-speaking group are the Azerbaijani, who live along the border with Azerbaijan in northwestern Iran. Arabs predominate in oil-rich Khuzestan province and along the Persian Gulf; Armenians and the few remaining Jews are concentrated in urban areas.

The official language is Persian, or Farsi, an INDO-EUROPEAN language written in the Arabic script. The dialect of the Persians is considered standard and is quite unlike that spoken by the Gilani and Mazandarani. Related to Persian but different enough to be considered separate languages are Kurdish, Luri, and Baluchi. Azerbaijani is the most widely used of the Turkic languages, part of the URAL-ALTAIC LANGUAGE group.

About 99 percent of all Iranians are Muslims; 95 percent are SHIITES, or members of the Shia sect of Islam. Iran is the world's center of Shiite Islam, and it is the official state religion. Most of the ethnic minorities, however, including Kurds, Baluchi, Turks, and Arabs, are SUNNITES, or members of the Sunni sect of Islam. Leadership of the Shiites rests with a priestly class of mullahs, whose leaders have great political influence and include about 400 ayatollahs, or "holy ones." Since the 1979 revolution, even the most secular Iranians have been forced to adhere to strict Islamic codes of behavior. The principal minority religions are BAHA'I, ZOROASTRIANISM, and Christianity (notably the NESTORIAN CHURCH). Baha'is and Christians have been persecuted by the government since the revolution.

Demography

Large areas of Iran are uninhabited. The population is concentrated along the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, the Atrek River valley in the northeast, the Karun River valley and Tigris-Euphrates delta in the southwest, and the mountain valleys of the northwest. The largest urban center is TEHRAN, the capital, which has grown rapidly in recent decades. Other large urban centers are ISFAHAN, SHIRAZ, and TABRIZ. MASHHAD and QUM are important Shiite religious centers. The population, which was only 20,000 in 1960, had increased by more than 300 percent by 1994 due to better health care and a high birthrate.
Education and Health

Education is free and compulsory for all children from age 6 to age 11. Since the revolution, many new schools have been built, textbooks have been rewritten to place greater emphasis on religion and traditional values, and classes have been segregated by sex. The country's universities, closed after the revolution, have gradually reopened since 1983; the largest is the University of Tehran (1934). Today higher education focuses primarily on agricultural and vocational studies. Health care has improved since the 1960s but remains inadequate, particularly in rural areas, although, since the revolution, a greater emphasis has been placed on providing social services to those areas.

The Arts

Iran has a very rich indigenous culture. Poetry is traditionally the most important art form; the SHAH NAMAH (c.1010) of FIRDAWSI, is considered the national epic (see PERSIAN LITERATURE). Music and architecture are also historically important; the traditional forms of both have been influenced by Western styles in recent decades (see PERSIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE). Iran is famous for its crafts, including ceramics and silver and gold metalwork, but the traditional industry of carpetmaking seems to be in an irreversible decline.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITY

During the 1960s and 1970s the shah attempted to transform Iran into a modern, industrial nation. As revenues increased following the world rise in oil prices in the 1970s, Iran enjoyed one of the highest economic growth rates in the world. This rapid growth created a prosperous middle class, but it also caused widespread social and cultural dislocation. After the 1979 revolution, Iran's revolutionary government emphasized self-sufficiency, and Islamic scholars had greater power over economic decisions than did government officials until late 1987. Most industries (including the oil industry, in 1981) were nationalized, and many large-scale projects were abandoned. Oil exports have remained at a relatively high level despite the damage to wells, refineries, and export terminals caused by the long IRAN-IRAQ WAR (1980-88), which consumed about 30 percent of the GNP and adversely affected the economy.

Manufacturing

Manufacturing now provides a larger share of the GNP than agriculture, although it employs fewer people. The principal industries are oil related and include refining and the production of petrochemicals. The principal oil-processing center is ABADAN. Steel manufacturing began in 1973, and domestic steel is widely used in the production of automobiles, buses, trucks, tractors, refrigerators, and electrical machinery. The textile industry, Iran's oldest major industry, is centered mainly in Isfahan.

Agriculture and Fishing

About 12 percent of the land is suitable for agriculture; a dwindling percentage of the population are nomadic tribespeople raising sheep and goats. In 1962 a major land-reform program redistributed much of the huge land holdings of absentee landlords to poor, landless peasants in an effort to raise the rural standard of living. Irrigation dams were also built, and the government attempted to establish huge, mechanized commercial farms. Most farms, however, remain small and inefficient. Iran's farm output has not been able to keep pace with the demands of the nation's rapidly growing population, although the government is attempting to reduce food imports and guarantee a minimum food security through rationing and food price supports. Commercial fishing is important along the Persian Gulf and in the Caspian Sea, the source of Iran's famous caviar.

Transportation

Railroads serve the major cities of Tehran, Mashhad, and Tabriz in the north and connect with lines serving Qum, Ahvaz, Bandar Khomeini, Khorramshahr, and Isfahan. The principal highway extends from the Turkish border to Herat, in Afghanistan. The leading ports are Khorramshahr, Bandar Abbas, Bandar Khomeini, and Bushehr. Kharg Island is the main terminus for oil exports.

Trade

More than 90 percent of Iranian exports consist of oil and oil products. Other exports include textiles, carpets, cotton, and dried and fresh fruit. In recent times all but the most essential imports have been tied to countertrade (oil for imports). Iran has expanded its trade links with Asia and signed (1986) an agreement of limited economic cooperation with the USSR. The revolutionary government has been reluctant to borrow abroad and has repaid almost all of the nation's foreign debt, including claims by U.S. firms that lost assets after the shah's overthrow.

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

Many dynasties and empires have ruled Persia, which at times has been at the center of vast empires extending through much of the Middle East (see PERSIA, ANCIENT). The modern Persian state traces its beginnings to CYRUS THE GREAT, who became the first of the ACHAEMENID emperors in 549 BC. In 330 BC, Persia became part of Alexander the Great's empire. It was subsequently part of the SELEUCID kingdom and then, beginning in 250 BC, of the Parthian empire (see PARTHIA). In AD c.224 the Parthian ARSACID dynasty was overthrown by the SASSANIANS, a Persian dynasty that ruled until the Arab conquest, which was completed in 641. The Arabs introduced Islam and incorporated Persia into the dominions of the caliphs (see CALIPHATE). In the 11th and 12th centuries the country came under the rule of the SELJUK Turks, who laid down the administrative and economic structure that persisted until the 20th century. Persia was overrun by the MONGOLS under GENGHIS KHAN in the 13th century and by TIMUR in the late 14th century.

In the 16th century, after a long period of disunity, Shah Ismail (r. 1502-24) founded the SAFAVID dynasty, which restored Persia as a political entity and established Shiism as the national religion. The greatest Safavid ruler was Shah ABBAS I, who reconquered (1603-23) substantial territories from the Ottoman Empire. The Afghans overthrew the Safavids in 1722, but Persian independence was restored (1736) by the despotic Nadir Shah. His Afshar dynasty was followed (1750) by the Zand dynasty, which was overthrown in 1794 by the Qajars (Kajars), who held the throne until 1925.

During the 19th century Iran came under increasing pressure from Russia in the north and from Britain, which was pushing westward from India and northward from the Persian Gulf. The Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907 (see TRIPLE ENTENTE) divided the country into a Russian zone of influence, a British zone, and a neutral zone. In 1908 petroleum was discovered. The decadent Qajar dynasty was unable to save the country from a state of virtual civil war and from foreign domination until the emergence of a strong leader in REZA SHAH PAHLAVI after World War I. The Majlis (parliament) elevated him to the throne in 1925. He reorganized the military forces, restored internal order, broke the power of the reactionary Shiite clergy, developed new industries, and revised the legal system.

In 1941 joint British-Soviet pressure forced the abdication of the allegedly pro-German Reza Shah. He was succeeded by his 22-year-old son, MUHAMMAD REZA SHAH PAHLAVI. In the early 1950s the power of the new shah was challenged by the nationalist leader Muhammad MOSADDEQ, who tried to take over the government and nationalized the oil industry, previously controlled by foreign interests. The shah was forced to flee the country briefly in 1953, but he returned shortly with strong backing from the Western powers; Mosaddeq was subsequently convicted of treason, and the shah emerged as a powerful and determined ruler. In 1954 a new arrangement with a consortium of Western oil companies was negotiated, giving Iran 50 percent of all profits (raised to 55 percent in 1970).

In 1963 the shah inaugurated an ambitious program of modernization (including land reform, emancipation of women, and rapid industrialization) known as the White Revolution. The reforms were too much for some and not enough for others and were accompanied by corruption and widespread social dislocation. As opposition grew, particularly among the clergy, order was kept by the army and the secret police, SAVAK.

During 1977 and 1978, however, tensions increased and opposition from both the left and right erupted into street rioting. In November 1978 the shah placed Iran under military rule. Opposition continued, however, led from Paris by the exiled Islamic fundamentalist Ayatollah Ruhollah KHOMEINI. On Jan. 6, 1979, the shah lifted military rule, and a few days later he left the country. Khomeini returned to a tumultuous welcome on February 1, and on February 12, Iran was proclaimed an Islamic republic. Hundreds of the shah's supporters and alleged members of Savak were arrested, tried, and executed. Khomeini initiated policies to reverse the Westernization of Iran, and a new constitution was approved at the end of the year, establishing a parliamentary form of government with an elected president and a unicameral parliament; the Sharia (Islamic law) as the basis of the legal system; and a council of guardians dominated by religious leaders. The constitution vested supreme authority in a faqih (supreme religious guide) and made Khomeini faqih for life.

The new regime was antagonistic toward the United States because of the latter's longtime support of the shah. The seizure of the U.S. embassy in Tehran and its personnel by militant students in November 1979 precipitated a prolonged international crisis (see IRANIAN HOSTAGE CRISIS) that finally ended with the release of the hostages in January 1981. Meanwhile, in 1980, a border dispute with Iraq erupted into war (see IRAN-IRAQ WAR) when Iraqi troops invaded Iran. The war continued until 1988, when Iraq and Iran agreed to a cease-fire. Khomeini skillfully used both the hostage crisis and the war with Iraq to unify the country behind him.

Abolhassan Bani-Sadr, a moderate who was elected president in January 1980, found his powers increasingly circumscribed by the fundamentalist clerics who held a majority in parliament. In June 1981 he was dismissed. His successor, Muhammad Ali Rajai, was assassinated later that year. Hojatolislam Ali Khamenei was elected president in 1981 and reelected in 1985.

Iran's revolutionary government continued to enjoy widespread domestic support despite shortages of food and foreign exchange and political repression. It became increasingly isolated in the international community, however, partly because of its links to HEZBOLLAH and other terrorist groups and activities. Signs of differences among Iran's political leaders emerged, particularly after the late 1986 revelations of U.S. arms sales to Iran in the so-called IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR. In 1988, Khomeini reluctantly accepted a UN-mediated cease-fire in the Iran-Iraq War.

After Khomeini's death, on July 3, 1989, the Council of Experts elected Khamenei to succeed him as Iran's supreme religious leader. In 1989 the post of prime minister was abolished and Hashemi RAFSANJANI, the speaker of parliament, was elected to the strengthened presidency; he was reelected in 1993. Soon after its 1990 invasion of Kuwait, Iraq agreed to return to Iran all prisoners and territory taken during the Iran-Iraq War; the two nations restored diplomatic ties in September. Iran remained neutral during the 1991 PERSIAN GULF WAR. Later, advocates of economic reform and foreign investment appeared to lose ground to radical clerics who denounced the 1993 accord between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization and backed the extremist Palestinian group Hamas in the Israeli-occupied territories as well as Muslim extremists in Sudan and elsewhere. Anti-U.S. sentiment in Iran increased in 1995, when U.S. President Clinton prevented a U.S. oil firm from developing two oil fields in Iran and banned U.S. companies from trading with Iran because of its support for radical Islamic groups and its recent arms buildup in the Persian Gulf.

Arthur Campbell Turner

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